2005) and in semiterrestrial tadpoles (e.g., Bokermann 1965 Kunte 1998 Facure and Giaretta 2009 Veeranagoudar et al. Jumping behavior occurs in fishes (e.g., Sazima and Machado 1989 Berk et al. 2009 Resetarits and Binckley 2009).Īn uncommon defense tactic observed in some aquatic animals is jumping out of the water, making the prey inaccessible to an aquatic predator (e.g., Sazima and Machado 1989). Thus, hunting strategies and spatial dynamics of predators, antipredator mechanisms, and habitat characteristics may interact to influence the dynamics of predator–prey relationships ( Thomson et al. 2009): Predators select habitat patches based on their expected predation success, whereas prey select patches to balance foraging and predation risk. Moreover, a prey’s specific defenses influence the habitat utilization by predators and prey and their spatial distribution ( Lawler 1989 Azevedo-Ramos et al. Antipredator tactics, particularly antipredator behavior, diminish the chance of an encounter with predators and/or increase the chance of survival in such encounters ( Duellman and Trueb 1986 Feder and Lauder 1986 Lima 1998 Relyea 2001 Heithaus et al.

Predators may have major impacts on ecological systems either by promoting the removal of prey individuals (lethal effects) or by inducing prey to develop antipredator responses (nonlethal effects Lima 1998). Predation influences community composition and biological aspects of prey species, both being positively associated with the level of natural predation ( Giles and Huntingford 1984). Our results are congruent with the predictions, therefore, confirming the jumping behavior as an effective antipredator tactic. The field study indicated that tadpoles and odonate naiads were distributed in a negatively associated, but puddle-size dependent pattern. Experiments demonstrated that jumping behavior occurred more frequently when a predator was present and that tadpoles prevented from jumping were more susceptible to predation. To test predictions 3) and 4), we conducted a field study to determine how predators and prey are distributed throughout the habitat. In Experiment 2, we compared tadpole survival in 2 conditions: Tadpoles were allowed or not to jump. In Experiment 1, we evaluated the jump frequency of tadpoles in 3 treatments (tadpoles in the presence or absence of a predator, or using an inanimate object as predator presence control). To test predictions 1) and 2), we conducted 2 laboratory experiments.

Considering the hypothesis that jumping behavior represents an antipredator tactic, we addressed the following predictions: 1) tadpoles will jump more frequently from puddles with predators than from puddles without predators 2) tadpole mortality will increase if tadpoles are prevented from jumping 3) it would be more common to find tadpoles in puddles where predators are absent and 4) predator and prey coexistence would be more probable in large puddles than in small ones. In this system, odonate naiads are the main predators. falcipes are capable of jumping out of small temporary puddles where they occur.

Produce 101 season 2 jumping phototime